Generative AI and critical thinking in online higher education: challenges and opportunities
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5944/ried.28.2.43556Keywords:
artificial intelligence in e-learning (AIeL), critical thinking, metacognitive awareness, online higher education, AI ethics, digital divideAbstract
Generative artificial intelligence (GAI) is reshaping higher education, particularly in virtual learning environments where the prevalence of asynchronous activities requires students to take an active role in managing their own learning. Its integration presents both challenges and opportunities for educators, who not only support critical thinking but also need techno-pedagogical skills to guide its ethical and reflective use. This exploratory study examines the incorporation of GAI into distance education across five dimensions: barriers that limit critical thinking, factors that can enhance it, available socio-technological alternatives, social challenges and broader implications of strengthening this skill. A qualitative approach was used, based on semi-structured interviews with eleven higher education experts. The findings highlight key obstacles, including limited teacher training in GAI and critical thinking, institutional resistance and a lack of clear guidelines. However, digital literacy, pedagogical innovation and adapted assessment methods can help overcome these barriers. Among the proposed solutions are the development of edu-chatbots in controlled university environments and frameworks to assess algorithmic biases. Even so, ensuring equitable access and avoiding an uncritical reliance on AI persist as notable challenges. This study contributes by proposing five action areas to support educators and academic decision-makers in integrating GAI and shaping educational policies. Its implementation requires collaboration between institutions, faculty and policymakers to ensure that AI-driven automation not only enhances educational processes but also fosters critical thinking meaningfully.
Downloads
References
Adiguzel, T., Kaya, M. H., & Cansu, F. K. (2023). Revolutionizing education with AI: Exploring the transformative potential of ChatGPT. Contemporary Educational Technology, 15(3), Article ep429. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/13152
Aguilar Vargas, L. R., Alcántara Llanas, I. T., & Braun Mondragón, K. A. (2020). Impacto del pensamiento crítico en las habilidades para el campo laboral. ACADEMO, 7(2), 166-174. https://doi.org/10.30545/academo.2020.jul-dic.7
Almanasreh, E., Moles, R., & Chen, T. F. (2019). Evaluation of methods used for estimating content validity. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 15(2), 214-221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2018.03.066
Altman, D. G. (1990). Practical statistics for medical research. Chapman and Hall/CRC. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429258589
Ayanwale, M. A., Sanusi, I. T., Adelana, O. P., Aruleba, K. D., & Oyelere, S. S. (2022). Teachers' readiness and intention to teach artificial intelligence in schools. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 3, Article 100099. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100099
Ayyıldız, P., & Yılmaz, A. (2021). Moving the kaleidoscope to see the effect of creative personality traits on creative thinking dispositions of preservice teachers: The mediating effect of creative learning environments and teachers' creativity fostering behavior. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 41, Article 100879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100879
Bae, C. L., DeBusk-Lane, M. L., & Lester, A. M. (2020). Engagement profiles of elementary students in urban schools. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 62, Article 101880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101880
Baidoo-Anu, D., & Owusu Ansah, L. (2023). Education in the era of generative artificial intelligence (AI): Understanding the potential benefits of ChatGPT in promoting teaching and learning. Journal of AI, 7(1), 52-62. https://doi.org/10.61969/jai.1337500
Baker, R. S., & Hawn, A. (2022). Algorithmic bias in education. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 32, 1052-1092. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-021-00285-9
Barrett, A., & Pack, A. (2023). Not quite eye to A.I.: Student and teacher perspectives on the use of generative artificial intelligence in the writing process. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 20(1), Article 59. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00427-0
Barrot, J. S. (2023). Using ChatGPT for second language writing: Pitfalls and potentials. Assessing Writing, 57, Article 100745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2023.100745
Bhutoria, A. (2022). Personalized education and artificial intelligence in the United States, China, and India: A systematic review using a Human-In-The-Loop model. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 3, Article 100068. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100068
Bloom, B. S., Englehart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. Longmans, Green.
Çakıcı, D. (2018). Metacognitive awareness and critical thinking abilities of pre-service EFL teachers. Journal of Education and Learning, 7(5), 116-129. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v7n5p116
Cananau, I., Edling, S., & Haglund, B. (2025). Critical thinking in preparation for student teachers' professional practice: A case study of critical thinking conceptions in policy documents framing teaching placement at a Swedish university. Teaching and Teacher Education, 153, Article 104816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2024.104816
Castelló-Sirvent, F., & Cortés-Pellicer, P. (2024). Using generative AI for strategic analysis? A study on perceived utility among industrial organization engineering students. In INTED2024 Proceedings (pp. 3365-3372). IATED. https://doi.org/10.21125/inted.2024.0894
Cavalcanti, A. P., Barbosa, A., Carvalho, R., Freitas, F., Tsai, Y. S., Gašević, D., & Mello, R. F. (2021). Automatic feedback in online learning environments: A systematic literature review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 2, Article 100027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100027
Celik, I. (2023). Towards Intelligent-TPACK: An empirical study on teachers' professional knowledge to ethically integrate artificial intelligence (AI)-based tools into education. Computers in Human Behavior, 138, Article 107468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107468
Chan, C. K. Y. (2023). A comprehensive AI policy education framework for university teaching and learning. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 20(1), Article 38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00408-3
Chassignol, M., Khoroshavin, A., Klimova, A., & Bilyatdinova, A. (2018). Artificial intelligence trends in education: A narrative overview. Procedia Computer Science, 136, 16-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2018.08.233
Chen, L., Chen, P., & Lin, Z. (2020). Artificial intelligence in education: A review. IEEE Access, 8, 75264-75278. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2988510
Chiu, T. K., & Chai, C. S. (2020). Sustainable curriculum planning for artificial intelligence education: A self-determination theory perspective. Sustainability, 12(14), Article 5568. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12145568
Chng, E., Tan, A. L., & Tan, S. C. (2023). Examining the use of emerging technologies in schools: A review of artificial intelligence and immersive technologies in STEM education. Journal for STEM Education Research, 6(3), 385-407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41979-023-00092-y
Choi, S., Jang, Y., & Kim, H. (2023). Influence of pedagogical beliefs and perceived trust on teachers' acceptance of educational artificial intelligence tools. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 39(4), 910-922. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2022.2049145
Choy, S. C., & Cheah, P. K. (2009). Teacher perceptions of critical thinking among students and its influence on higher education. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 20(2), 198-206. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ864337.pdf
Cortini, M., & Tria, S. (2014). Triangulating qualitative and quantitative approaches for the analysis of textual materials: An introduction to T-Lab. Social Science Computer Review, 32(4), 561-568. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439313510108
Cotton, D. R. E., Cotton, P. A., & Shipway, J. R. (2023). Chatting and cheating: Ensuring academic integrity in the era of ChatGPT. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 61(2), 228-239. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2023.2190148
De Vicente, J., & Matti, C. (2016). Visual toolbox for system innovation. A resource book for practitioners to map, analyse and facilitate sustainability transitions. Transitions Hub Series. Climate-KIC.
Delgado, A. J., Wardlow, L., McKnight, K., & O'Malley, K. (2015). Educational technology: A review of the integration, resources, and effectiveness of technology in K-12 classrooms. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 14, 397-416. https://doi.org/10.28945/2298
Deng, J., & Lin, Y. (2022). The benefits and challenges of ChatGPT: An overview. Frontiers in Computing and Intelligent Systems, 2(2), 81–83. https://doi.org/10.54097/fcis.v2i2.4465
Dilekli, Y., & Boyraz, S. (2024). From "Can AI think?" to "Can AI help thinking deeper?": Is use of ChatGPT in higher education a tool of transformation or fraud? International Journal of Modern Education Studies, 8(1), 49-71. https://doi.org/10.51383/ijonmes.2024.316
Drugova, E., Zhuravleva, I., Zakharova, U., & Latipov, A. (2024). Learning analytics driven improvements in learning design in higher education: A systematic literature review. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 40(2), 510-524. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12894
Eke, O. D. (2023). ChatGPT and the rise of generative AI: Threat to academic integrity? Journal of Responsible Technology, 13, Article 100060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrt.2023.100060
Ennis, R. H., & Millman, J. (1985). Cornell critical thinking test, level Z. Midwest Publications.
Ertmer, P. A., Sadaf, A., & Ertmer, D. J. (2011). Student-content interactions in online courses: The role of question prompts in facilitating higher-level engagement with course content. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 23, 157-186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-011-9047-6
Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. Research findings and recommendations. ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED315423
Facione, P. A. (2023). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts (2023 update). Insight Assessment. https://insightassessment.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Critical-Thinking-What-It-Is-and-Why-It-Counts.pdf
Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of intelligence (pp. 231-235). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781032646527-16
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-911. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906
Fleiss, J. L. (1981). Statistical methods for rates and proportions (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Fuchs, K. (2023). Exploring the opportunities and challenges of NLP models in higher education: Is ChatGPT a blessing or a curse? Frontiers in Education, 8, Article 1166682. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2023.1166682
Garcés, G., & Bastías, E. (2025). Competencies model for online learning in higher education: A bibliometric analysis and systematic review. RIED-Revista Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia, 28(1), 37-66. https://doi.org/10.5944/ried.28.1.41351
Gartner, S., & Krašna, M. (2023). Artificial intelligence in education-ethical framework. In 2023 12th Mediterranean Conference on Embedded Computing (MECO) (pp. 1-7). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/MECO58584.2023.10155012
Gil, H., & Guilleumas, R. M. (2017). Redes de comunicación del movimiento 15M en Twitter. Redes. Revista Hispana para el Análisis de Redes Sociales, 28(1), 135-146. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/redes.670
Goodsett, M. (2020). Best practices for teaching and assessing critical thinking in information literacy online learning objects. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 46(5), Article 102163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2020.102163
Guàrdia Ortiz, L., Maina, M., Cabrera Lanzo, N., & Fernández-Ferrer, M. (2024). La autorregulación del aprendizaje desde un enfoque de feedback entre pares: Perspectivas de la IA generativa. Revista de Educación a Distancia (RED), 24(78). https://doi.org/10.6018/red.599511
Guo, B., Zhang, X., Wang, Z., Jiang, M., Nie, J., Ding, Y., Yue, J., & Wu, Y. (2023). How close is ChatGPT to human experts? Comparison corpus, evaluation, and detection. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2301.07597
Guo, Y., & Lee, D. (2023). Leveraging ChatGPT for enhancing critical thinking skills. Journal of Chemical Education, 100(12), 4876-4883. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.3c00505
Halpern, D. F. (1998). Teaching critical thinking for transfer across domains: Disposition, skills, structure training, and metacognitive monitoring. American Psychologist, 53(4), 449–455. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.53.4.449
Hoi, V. N., & Le Hang, H. (2021). The structure of student engagement in online learning: A bi‐factor exploratory structural equation modelling approach. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 37(4), 1141-1153. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12551
Huang, A. Y. Q., Lu, O. H. T., & Yang, S. J. H. (2023). Effects of artificial intelligence-enabled personalized recommendations on learners' learning engagement, motivation, and outcomes in a flipped classroom. Computers and Education, 194, Article 104684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104684
Ilić, M., Mikić, V., Kopanja, L., & Vesin, B. (2023). Intelligent techniques in e-learning: A literature review. Artificial Intelligence Review, 56(12), 14907-14953. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-023-10508-1
Ivanov, S. (2023). The dark side of artificial intelligence in higher education. Service Industries Journal, 43(15-16), 1055-1082. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2023.2258799
Javaid, M., Haleem, A., Singh, R. P., Khan, S., & Khan, I. H. (2023). Unlocking the opportunities through ChatGPT Tool towards ameliorating the education system. BenchCouncil Transactions on Benchmarks, Standards and Evaluations, 3(2), Article 100115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbench.2023.100115
Kong, S. C., Cheung, W. M. Y., & Tsang, O. (2023). Evaluating an artificial intelligence literacy programme for empowering and developing concepts, literacy and ethical awareness in senior secondary students. Education and Information Technologies, 28(6), 4703-4724. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11408-7
Ku, K. Y. L. (2009). Assessing students' critical thinking performance: Urging for measurements using multi-response format. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 4(1), 70-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2009.02.001
Ku, K. Y. L., & Ho, I. T. (2010). Metacognitive strategies that enhance critical thinking. Metacognition and Learning, 5(3), 251-267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-010-9060-6
Kuhn, D., & Dean, D., Jr. (2004). Metacognition: A bridge between cognitive psychology and educational practice. Theory Into Practice, 43(4), 268-274. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4304_4
Kumar, R., Eaton, S. E., Mindzak, M., & Morrison, R. (2024). Academic integrity and artificial intelligence: An overview. In S. E. Eaton (Ed.), Second handbook of academic integrity (pp. 1583-1596). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54144-5_153
Lin, P., & Van Brummelen, J. (2021). Engaging teachers to co-design integrated AI curriculum for K-12 classrooms. In Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (Article 239, pp. 1-12). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3411764.3445377
Lipman, M. (1988). Critical thinking—What can it be? Educational Leadership, 46(1), 38–43.
Liu, Y., Han, T., Ma, S., Zhang, J., Yang, Y., Tian, J., He, H., Li, A., He, M., Liu, Z., Wu, Z., Zhao, L., Zhu, D., Li, X., Qiang, N., Shen, D., Liu, T., & Ge, B. (2023). Summary of ChatGPT-related research and perspective towards the future of large language models. Meta-Radiology, 1(2), Article 100017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metrad.2023.100017
Longarela-Ares, A. M., & Rodríguez-Padín, R. (2023). Aprendizaje colaborativo, learning-by-doing y evaluación entre pares en educación superior. EDUCA. Revista Internacional para la Calidad Educativa, 3(2), 275-298. https://doi.org/10.55040/educa.v3i2.66
Lorencová, H., Jarošová, E., Avgitidou, S., & Dimitriadou, C. (2019). Critical thinking practices in teacher education programmes: A systematic review. Studies in Higher Education, 44(5), 844-859. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1586331
Luckin, R., Cukurova, M., Kent, C., & Du Boulay, B. (2022). Empowering educators to be AI-ready. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 3, Article 100076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100076
MacKnight, C. B. (2000). Teaching critical thinking through online discussions. Educause Quarterly, 23(4), 38-41.
Malik, A. R., Pratiwi, Y., Andajani, K., Numertayasa, I. W., Suharti, S., & Darwis, A. (2023). Exploring artificial intelligence in academic essay: Higher education student's perspective. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 5, Article 100296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2023.100296
Maor, R., Paz-Baruch, N., Grinshpan, N., Milman, A., Mevarech, Z., Levi, R., & Zion, M. (2023). Relationships between metacognition, creativity, and critical thinking in self-reported teaching performances in project-based learning settings. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 50, Article 101425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101425
Martín, S., & López, E. (2023). Guía para integrar las tecnologías basadas en inteligencia artificial generativa en los procesos de enseñanza y aprendizaje. Vicerrectorado de Innovación Educativa, UNED.
Mazzoni, D., Marchetti, L., Albanesi, C., & Cicognani, E. (2018). L'uso di T-LAB in psicologia della salute. Una rassegna della letteratura [The use of T-LAB in health psychology. A literature review]. Psicologia della Salute, (2), 91-114. https://doi.org/10.3280/PDS2018-002009
Miao, F., Holmes, W., Huang, R., & Zhang, H. (2021). AI and education: A guidance for policymakers. UNESCO Publishing. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000376709
Mondo, T. S., & Gândara, J. M. (2017). O turismo experiencial a partir de uma perspectiva socioeconômica mercadológica [Experiential tourism from a socioeconomic and market perspective]. Journal of Tourism Analysis, 24, 26-40.
Mpofu, N., & Maphalala, M. C. (2017). Fostering critical thinking in initial teacher education curriculums: A comprehensive literature review. Gender and Behaviour, 15(2), 9226-9236. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC-b41be80a7
Ng, D. T. K., Leung, J. K. L., Su, J., Ng, R. C. W., & Chu, S. K. W. (2023). Teachers' AI digital competencies and twenty-first century skills in the post-pandemic world. Educational Technology Research and Development, 71(1), 137-161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-023-10203-6
Niu, L., Behar-Horenstein, L. S., & Garvan, C. W. (2013). Do instructional interventions influence college students' critical thinking skills? A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 9, 114-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2012.12.002
Ocumpaugh, J., Roscoe, R. D., Baker, R. S., Hutt, S., & Aguilar, S. J. (2024). Toward asset-based instruction and assessment in artificial intelligence in education. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 34, 1559-1598. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-023-00382-x
Papleontiou-Louca, E. (2003). The concept and instruction of metacognition. Teacher Development, 7(1), 9-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/13664530300200184
Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (2005). How college affects students: A third decade of research. Jossey-Bass.
Pasquinelli, E., Farina, M., Bedel, A., & Casati, R. (2021). Naturalizing critical thinking: Consequences for education, blueprint for future research in cognitive science. Mind, Brain, and Education, 15(2), 168-176. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12286
Pereles, A., Ortega-Ruipérez, B., & Lázaro, M. (2024). A digital world toolkit: Enhancing teachers' metacognitive strategies for student digital literacy development. RIED-Revista Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia, 27(2), 267-294. https://doi.org/10.5944/ried.27.2.38798
Plummer, K. J., Kebritchi, M., Leary, H. M., & Halverson, D. M. (2022). Enhancing critical thinking skills through decision-based learning. Innovative Higher Education, 47(4), 711-734. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-022-09595-9
Rivas, S. F., Saiz, C., & Ossa, C. (2022). Metacognitive strategies and development of critical thinking in higher education. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 913219. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.913219
Romero Alonso, R., Araya Carvajal, K., & Reyes Acevedo, N. (2025). Role of artificial intelligence in the personalization of distance education: A systematic review. RIED-Revista Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia, 28(1), 9-36. https://doi.org/10.5944/ried.28.1.41538
Ronderos, N., Foster-Heinzer, S., Flick-Holtsch, D., Shavelson, R. J., Mariño, J. P., Solano-Flores, G., & Perfetti, M. C. (2024). Construct overlap in cross-national assessment: Critical thinking in the teacher education curricula of two countries. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 56(4), 514-535. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2024.2312392
Ruiz-Rojas, L. I., Salvador-Ullauri, L., & Acosta-Vargas, P. (2024). Collaborative working and critical thinking: Adoption of generative artificial intelligence tools in higher education. Sustainability, 16(13), Article 5367. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135367
Rusdin, D., Mukminatien, N., Suryati, N., & Laksmi, E. D. (2023). Critical thinking in the AI era: An exploration of EFL students' perceptions, benefits, and limitations. Cogent Education, 11(1), Article 2290342. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2290342
Shanto, S. S., Ahmed, Z., & Jony, A. I. (2024). Enriching learning process with generative AI: A proposed framework to cultivate critical thinking in higher education using ChatGPT. Tuijin Jishu/Journal of Propulsion Technology, 45(1), 3019-3029. https://www.propulsiontechjournal.com/index.php/journal/article/view/4680/3181
Tang, K. Y., Chang, C. Y., & Hwang, G. J. (2021). Trends in artificial intelligence-supported e-learning: A systematic review and co-citation network analysis (1998–2019). Interactive Learning Environments, 31(4), 2134-2152. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2021.1875001
Thornhill-Miller, B., Camarda, A., Mercier, M., Burkhardt, J. M., Morisseau, T., Bourgeois-Bougrine, S., Vinchon, F., El Hayek, S., Augereau-Landais, M., Mourey, F., Feybesse, C., Sundquist, D., & Lubart, T. (2023). Creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration: Assessment, certification, and promotion of 21st century skills for the future of work and education. Journal of Intelligence, 11(3), Article 54. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11030054
Timms, M. J. (2016). Letting artificial intelligence in education out of the box: Educational cobots and smart classrooms. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26, 701-712. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-016-0095-y
UNESCO. (2021). Estrategia de la UNESCO sobre la innovación tecnológica en la educación (2022-2025). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000378847_spa
UNESCO. (2024). AI competency framework for teachers. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000391104
Van Laar, E., Van Deursen, A. J. A. M., Van Dijk, J. A. G. M., & De Haan, J. (2017). The relation between 21st-century skills and digital skills: A systematic literature review. Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 577-588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.010
Vazhayil, A., Shetty, R., Bhavani, R. R., & Akshay, N. (2019). Focusing on teacher education to introduce AI in schools: Perspectives and illustrative findings. In 2019 IEEE Tenth International Conference on Technology for Education (T4E) (pp. 71-77). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/T4E.2019.00021
Watson, G., & Glaser, E. M. (1980). Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, forms A and B. Psychological Corporation.
Wegerif, R. (2002). Literature review in thinking skills, technology and learning (Report No. 2). NESTA Futurelab. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00190219
Wilton, L., Ip, S., Sharma, M., & Fan, F. (2022). Where is the AI? AI literacy for educators. In M. M. Rodrigo, N. Matsuda, A. I. Cristea, & V. Dimitrova (Eds.), Artificial intelligence in education. Posters and late breaking results, workshops and tutorials, industry and innovation tracks, practitioners' and doctoral consortium (pp. 180-188). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11647-6_31
World Economic Forum. (2023). Future of jobs report 2023. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs_2023.pdf
Yang, Y. T. C., Newby, T. J., & Bill, R. L. (2008). Facilitating interactions through structured web-based bulletin boards: A quasi-experimental study on promoting learners' critical thinking skills. Computers & Education, 50(4), 1572-1585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2007.04.006
Young, D. S., & Casey, E. A. (2019). An examination of the sufficiency of small qualitative samples. Social Work Research, 43(1), 53-58. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svy026
Yuan, L., & Liu, X. (2025). The effect of artificial intelligence tools on EFL learners' engagement, enjoyment, and motivation. Computers in Human Behavior, 162, Article 108474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2024.108474
Yusuf, A., Bello, S., Pervin, N., & Tukur, A. K. (2024). Implementing a proposed framework for enhancing critical thinking skills in synthesizing AI-generated texts. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 53, Article 101619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2024.101619
Zhang, Q., Lu, J., & Zhang, G. (2021). Recommender systems in E-learning. Journal of Smart Environment and Green Computing, 1, 76-89. https://doi.org/10.20517/jsegc.2020.06
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 César Muñoz Martínez, Vanessa Roger-Monzo, Fernando Castelló Sirvent
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The articles that are published in this journal are subject to the following terms:
1. The authors grant the exploitation rights of the work accepted for publication to RIED, guarantee to the journal the right to be the first publication of research understaken and permit the journal to distribute the work published under the license indicated in point 2.
2. The articles are published in the electronic edition of the journal under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license. You can copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format, adapt, remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially. You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
3. Conditions for self-archiving. Authors are encouraged to disseminate electronically the OnlineFirst version (assessed version and accepted for publication) of its articles before publication, always with reference to its publication by RIED, favoring its circulation and dissemination earlier and with this a possible increase in its citation and reach among the academic community.
